Farley et al. (>10)*
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We determined radiogenic and cosmogenic noble gases in a mudstone on the floor of Gale Crater. A K-Ar age of 4.21 ± 0.35 billion years represents a mixture of detrital and authigenic components and confirms the expected antiquity of rocks comprising the crater rim. Cosmic-ray–produced ³He,²¹Ne, and ³⁶Ar yield concordant surface exposure ages of 78 ± 30 million years. Surface exposure occurred mainly in the present geomorphic setting rather than during primary erosion and transport. Our observations are consistent with mudstone deposition shortly after the Gale impact or possibly in a later event of rapid erosion and deposition. The mudstone remained buried until recent exposure by wind-driven scarp retreat. Sedimentary rocks exposed by this mechanism may thus offer the best potential for organic biomarker preservation against destruction by cosmic radiation.

Reference
Farley et al. (2014) In Situ Radiometric and Exposure Age Dating of the Martian Surface. Science vol. 343 no. 6169.
[doi:10.1126/science.1247166]
Reprinted with permission from AAAS

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Ming et al. (>10)*
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H₂O, CO₂, SO₂, O₂, H₂, H₂S, HCl, chlorinated hydrocarbons, NO, and other trace gases were evolved during pyrolysis of two mudstone samples acquired by the Curiosity rover at Yellowknife Bay within Gale crater, Mars. H₂O/OH-bearing phases included 2:1 phyllosilicate(s), bassanite, akaganeite, and amorphous materials. Thermal decomposition of carbonates and combustion of organic materials are candidate sources for the CO₂. Concurrent evolution of O₂ and chlorinated hydrocarbons suggests the presence of oxychlorine phase(s). Sulfides are likely sources for sulfur-bearing species. Higher abundances of chlorinated hydrocarbons in the mudstone compared with Rocknest windblown materials previously analyzed by Curiosity suggest that indigenous martian or meteoritic organic carbon sources may be preserved in the mudstone; however, the carbon source for the chlorinated hydrocarbons is not definitively of martian origin.

Reference
Ming et al. (2014) Volatile and Organic Compositions of Sedimentary Rocks in Yellowknife Bay, Gale Crater, Mars. Science vol. 343 no. 6169.
[doi:10.1126/science.1245267]
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Hassler et al. (>10)*
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The Radiation Assessment Detector (RAD) on the Mars Science Laboratory’s Curiosity rover began making detailed measurements of the cosmic ray and energetic particle radiation environment on the surface of Mars on 7 August 2012. We report and discuss measurements of the absorbed dose and dose equivalent from galactic cosmic rays and solar energetic particles on the martian surface for ~300 days of observations during the current solar maximum. These measurements provide insight into the radiation hazards associated with a human mission to the surface of Mars and provide an anchor point with which to model the subsurface radiation environment, with implications for microbial survival times of any possible extant or past life, as well as for the preservation of potential organic biosignatures of the ancient martian environment.

Reference
Hassler et al. (2014) Mars’ Surface Radiation Environment Measured with the Mars Science Laboratory’s Curiosity Rover. Science vol. 343 no. 6169.
[doi:10.1126/science.1244797]
Reprinted with permission from AAAS

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McLennan et al. (>10)*
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Sedimentary rocks examined by the Curiosity rover at Yellowknife Bay, Mars, were derived from sources that evolved from an approximately average martian crustal composition to one influenced by alkaline basalts. No evidence of chemical weathering is preserved, indicating arid, possibly cold, paleoclimates and rapid erosion and deposition. The absence of predicted geochemical variations indicates that magnetite and phyllosilicates formed by diagenesis under low-temperature, circumneutral pH, rock-dominated aqueous conditions. Analyses of diagenetic features (including concretions, raised ridges, and fractures) at high spatial resolution indicate that they are composed of iron- and halogen-rich components, magnesium-iron-chlorine–rich components, and hydrated calcium sulfates, respectively. Composition of a cross-cutting dike-like feature is consistent with sedimentary intrusion. The geochemistry of these sedimentary rocks provides further evidence for diverse depositional and diagenetic sedimentary environments during the early history of Mars.

Reference
McLennan et al. (2014) Elemental Geochemistry of Sedimentary Rocks at Yellowknife Bay, Gale Crater, Mars. Science vol. 343 no. 6169.
[doi:10.1126/science.1244734]
Reprinted with permission from AAAS

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Vaniman et al. (>10)*
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Sedimentary rocks at Yellowknife Bay (Gale crater) on Mars include mudstone sampled by the Curiosity rover. The samples, John Klein and Cumberland, contain detrital basaltic minerals, calcium sulfates, iron oxide or hydroxides, iron sulfides, amorphous material, and trioctahedral smectites. The John Klein smectite has basal spacing of ~10 angstroms, indicating little interlayer hydration. The Cumberland smectite has basal spacing at both ~13.2 and ~10 angstroms. The larger spacing suggests a partially chloritized interlayer or interlayer magnesium or calcium facilitating H2O retention. Basaltic minerals in the mudstone are similar to those in nearby eolian deposits. However, the mudstone has far less Fe-forsterite, possibly lost with formation of smectite plus magnetite. Late Noachian/Early Hesperian or younger age indicates that clay mineral formation on Mars extended beyond Noachian time.

Reference
Vaniman et al. (2014) Mineralogy of a Mudstone at Yellowknife Bay, Gale Crater, Mars. Science vol. 343 no. 6169.
[doi:10.1126/science.1243480]
Reprinted with permission from AAAS

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Grotzinger et al. (>10)*
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The Curiosity rover discovered fine-grained sedimentary rocks, which are inferred to represent an ancient lake and preserve evidence of an environment that would have been suited to support a martian biosphere founded on chemolithoautotrophy. This aqueous environment was characterized by neutral pH, low salinity, and variable redox states of both iron and sulfur species. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, and phosphorus were measured directly as key biogenic elements; by inference, phosphorus is assumed to have been available. The environment probably had a minimum duration of hundreds to tens of thousands of years. These results highlight the biological viability of fluvial-lacustrine environments in the post-Noachian history of Mars.

Reference
Grotzinger et al. (2014) A Habitable Fluvio-Lacustrine Environment at Yellowknife Bay, Gale Crater, Mars. Science vol. 343.
[doi:10.1126/science.1242777]
Reprinted with permission from AAAS

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John P. Grotzinger

Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA.

Reference
Grotzinger JP (2014) Introduction: Habitability, Taphonomy, and the Search for Organic Carbon on Mars. Science 343:386-387.
[doi:10.1126/science.1249944]
Reprinted with permission from AAAS

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Humberto Campins and Christine M. Comfort

Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida 32816-2385, USA.

Reference
Campins H and Comfort CM (2014) Solar system: Evaporating asteroid. Nature 505:487–488.
[doi:10.1038/505487a]

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Küppers et al. (>10)*
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Reference
Küppers et al. (2014) Localized sources of water vapour on the dwarf planet (1) Ceres. Nature 505:525–527.
[doi:10.1038/nature12918]

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R.K. Mishra and J.N. Goswami
Physical Research Laboratory, Navrangpura, Ahmedabad, 380009;India

The short-lived now-extinct nuclide ⁶⁰Fe, present in the early Solar System, is a unique product of stellar nucleosynthesis. Even though the first hint for its presence in the early Solar System was obtained more than two decades back, a robust value for Solar System Initial (SSI) ⁶⁰Fe/⁵⁶Fe is yet to be established. A combined study of ²⁶Al-²⁶Mg and ⁶⁰Fe-⁶⁰Ni isotope systematics in chondrules from unequilibrated ordinary chondrites of low petrologic type, Semarkona (LL3.0), LEW 86134 (L3.0), and Y 791324 (L3.1), has been conducted to infer the value of SSI ⁶⁰Fe/⁵⁶Fe. Seven of the analyzed chondrules host resolved radiogenic excess in both⁶⁰Ni and ²⁶Mg resulting from in situ decay of the short-lived nuclides ⁶⁰Fe and ²⁶Al, respectively. The initial²⁶Al/²⁷Al values for these chondrules range from (6.9± 5.8)× 10^-6 to (3.01±1.78) ×10^-5 that suggest their formation between 2.1 to 0.6 Ma after CAIs. The initial ⁶⁰Fe/⁵⁶Fe at the time of formation of these chondrules ranges from (3.2±1.3) ×10^-7 to (1.12±0.39) ×10^-6 and show a good correlation with their initial ²⁶Al/²⁷Al values suggesting co-injection of the two short-lived nuclides, ⁶⁰Fe and ²⁶Al, into the protosolar cloud from the same stellar source. Considering ²⁶Al as a reliable early Solar System chronometer, this data set yield a SSI⁶⁰Fe/⁵⁶Fe value of (7.0±1.2) ×10^-7, if we adopt a half-life value of 2.6 Ma for ⁶⁰Fe reported in a recent study. Model stellar nucleosynthesis yields suggest that both a high mass (5-6.5 M_⊙) Asymptotic Giant Branch (AGB) star or a supernova (SN) could be the source of ⁶⁰Fe and ²⁶Al present in the early solar system. A high mass (∼25M_⊙) SN appears more plausible because of the much higher probability of its close association with the protosolar molecular cloud than a high mass AGB star. Such a SN can also account for SSI abundance of²⁶Al and its correlated presence with ⁶⁰Fe in chondrules.

Reference
Mishra RK and Goswami JN (2014) Fe-Ni and Al-Mg isotope records in UOC chondrules: Plausible stellar source of 60Fe and other short-lived nuclides in the early Solar System. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 167:956.
[doi:10.1016/j.gca.2014.01.011]

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